The Lost City: Pompeii

Pompeii was a thriving ancient city situated near Naples, Italy, in the region of Campania. It, along with Herculaneum and surrounding villas, was buried under a thick layer of volcanic ash and pumice during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.

Due to the rapid burial, Pompeii was remarkably preserved under the ash, providing an extraordinary glimpse into Roman life at the time. The excavated city serves as a time capsule, capturing the moment it was engulfed by the volcanic eruption. While some of the intricate details of everyday life were lost during the excavation process, Pompeii still offers valuable insights into the lives of its inhabitants.

Pompeii was a prosperous town, boasting a population of around 11,000 people in 79 AD. It featured impressive public buildings and opulent private residences adorned with elaborate decorations, furnishings, and artwork. These were among the primary attractions for early excavators. The volcanic ash also preserved organic materials, including wooden objects and human bodies. Over time, these decomposed, leaving behind empty spaces that were later filled with plaster to create molds, resulting in hauntingly realistic casts of individuals caught in their final moments.

The walls of Pompeii are adorned with numerous graffiti, providing a rich record of the colloquial Vulgar Latin spoken during that era, in contrast to the formal language of classical writers.

Today, Pompeii is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and remains a highly popular tourist destination, attracting approximately 2.5 million visitors each year. While extensive excavations were conducted prior to 1960, subsequent excavations have been limited to specific areas of priority. In recent years, these targeted excavations have led to new discoveries in previously unexplored sections of the city.

In Latin, Pompeii is a second declension masculine plural noun, with the forms “Pompeiī” and “Pompeiōrum.” The word Pompeii is believed to have its root in the Oscan language, where “pompe” means the number five. This has led to the interpretation that Pompeii either consisted of five hamlets or was settled by a family group known as gens Pompeia. Theodor Kraus suggests this connection in his research on the etymology of the name Pompeii.

Pompeii was situated approximately 40 meters (130 feet) above sea level on a coastal lava plateau that was formed by previous eruptions of Mount Vesuvius. The city was located about 8 kilometers (5 miles) away from the volcano. The plateau sloped steeply towards the south and partially towards the west, leading to the sea. On top of the lava, there are three layers of sediment from large landslides, possibly triggered by prolonged rainfall. Today, Pompeii is situated approximately 700 meters (2,300 feet) inland from its original location by the shoreline.

The city was built near the mouth of the Sarno River, which was navigable and provided a safe harbor for Greek and Phoenician sailors in ancient times. The area around the river was protected by lagoons and was later developed by the Romans.

Pompeii covered an area of 64 to 67 hectares (160 to 170 acres) and was home to approximately 11,000 to 11,500 people, as estimated based on household counts.

The history of Pompeii dates back to earlier times before the well-known Roman remains that are visible today from the eruption of AD 79. The city had a substantial settlement that existed prior to that period. The city experienced significant expansion after 450 BC under Greek influence following the Battle of Cumae.

Pompeii’s early history dates back to the 8th century BC when the Oscans, a central Italian population, founded five villages in the area. With the arrival of the Greeks in Campania around 740 BC, Pompeii came under Greek influence. The Doric Temple, located in what later became the Triangular Forum, was constructed during this period. The cult of Apollo was also introduced, and Greek and Phoenician sailors used the location as a safe harbor.

In the early 6th century BC, the separate settlements merged into a single community that became an important crossroad between Cumae, Nola, and Stabiae. A tufa city wall, known as the pappamonte wall, enclosed the expanded settlement, indicating its growing significance and wealth. Maritime trade began with the construction of a small port near the river mouth. The early settlement was concentrated in regions VII and VIII of the town, as seen from archaeological stratigraphy and the irregular street plan.

By 524 BC, the Etruscans had settled in the region, including Pompeii, utilizing the Sarno River as a communication route. The Etruscans controlled Pompeii without military conquest, and the city enjoyed a degree of autonomy while being a member of the Etruscan League of cities. Excavations have uncovered Etruscan inscriptions and a necropolis dating back to the 6th century BC. Under the Etruscans, a primitive forum or market square and the Temple of Apollo were built, featuring Etruscan influences in their architectural style.

The city walls of Pompeii were strengthened in the early 5th century BC, utilizing vertically set slabs of Sarno limestone filled with earth. In 474 BC, the Greek city of Cumae, in alliance with Syracuse, defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae and gained control of the region, including Pompeii.

During the Roman period, Pompeii underwent significant changes and became an important Roman colony. The town rebelled against Rome during the Social Wars, but in 89 BC, it was besieged and damaged by the Roman general Sulla. Pompeii eventually surrendered and became a Roman colony named Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum. Many of Sulla’s veterans were settled in and around the city, while those who opposed Rome lost their property.

Despite the conflict, Pompeii’s residents were granted Roman citizenship and assimilated into the Roman world. Latin became the main language spoken in the city, and Pompeii’s aristocratic families Latinized their names as a sign of assimilation. The area around Pompeii prospered due to its desirable location on the Bay of Naples and its fertile agricultural land. Many farms and villas were built in the vicinity, and some notable examples have been excavated, such as the Villa of the Mysteries, Villa of Diomedes, and those at Boscoreale, Boscotrecase, Oplontis, Terzigno, and Civita Giuliana.

Pompeii became an important hub for trade and transportation, with goods arriving by sea and being sent toward Rome or Southern Italy via the nearby Appian Way. The Roman period saw the construction and renovation of numerous public buildings in Pompeii. The Amphitheatre of Pompeii was built in 70 BC, providing a venue for gladiatorial contests and other spectacles. The Forum Baths and the Odeon were also constructed during this time. The city’s Forum was embellished with the colonnade of Popidius before 80 BC, enhancing Pompeii’s status as a cultural center in the region.

Under the rule of Emperor Augustus, beginning around 30 BC, Pompeii experienced a major expansion of new public buildings, following the trend seen throughout the Roman Empire. Notable structures from this period include the Eumachia Building, the Sanctuary of Augustus, and the Macellum. In approximately 20 BC, Pompeii was supplied with running water from the Serino Aqueduct, built by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.

However, Pompeii also faced challenges during this period. In AD 59, a violent riot broke out in the amphitheatre between Pompeians and Nucerians, resulting in bloodshed. The Roman Senate sent the Praetorian Guard to restore order and banned further events in the amphitheatre for ten years.

Overall, the Roman period marked a time of growth and prosperity for Pompeii, as it became an important cultural and economic center in the region, with impressive public buildings and a thriving agricultural and trade industry.

In AD 62, a severe earthquake struck the region around the Bay of Naples, including Pompeii. While the inhabitants of Pompeii were accustomed to minor earthquakes, this particular event caused considerable damage. The earthquake, believed to have registered between 5 and 6 on the Richter magnitude scale, occurred on 5 February 62.

On that day, Pompeii was preparing for two sacrifices: one to commemorate Augustus being named Pater Patriae (Father of the Country) and another to honor the guardian spirits of the city. The earthquake caused chaos and panic, with fires breaking out from fallen oil lamps. The nearby cities of Herculaneum and Nuceria were also affected by the earthquake.

After the earthquake, significant rebuilding efforts took place in Pompeii, primarily in the private sector. Older frescoes that were damaged were often covered with newer ones. In the public sector, there was an opportunity to improve buildings and the city’s layout, particularly in the Forum.

Current research focuses on structures that were restored between the earthquake of 62 and the eruption in 79. It was previously believed that some of the damage had not been repaired by the time of the eruption, but evidence suggests that missing statues and marble wall veneers were likely removed by looters after the city’s burial. The public buildings on the east side of the Forum were extensively restored, with the addition of beautiful marble veneers and architectural modifications.

Some buildings, such as the Central Baths, were constructed after the earthquake, featuring modern architectural advancements seen in Rome. These new baths occupied an entire insula (city block) by demolishing existing houses, which may have been facilitated by the earthquake damage. This indicates that the city was flourishing rather than struggling to recover from the earthquake.

In around 64 AD, Emperor Nero and his wife Poppaea visited Pompeii and made gifts to the temple of Venus, the city’s patron deity. This visit likely occurred when Nero performed in the nearby theater of Naples.

By 79 AD, Pompeii had a population of approximately 20,000, benefiting from the region’s fertile agriculture and advantageous location. However, more recent estimates suggest a population of up to 11,500 based on household counts. Pompeii continued to thrive economically and socially during this period.

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 was a catastrophic event that had a devastating impact on Pompeii and the surrounding cities. The eruption lasted for two days, with the first phase characterized by a rain of pumice (lapilli) that lasted about 18 hours. This initial phase allowed most of the inhabitants to escape, and the relatively low number of bodies found in Pompeii suggests that many people were able to flee and salvage their valuable belongings. Some of the victims were found with jewelry, coins, and silverware.

During the eruption, pyroclastic flows, consisting of high-speed and scorching ash clouds, started near the volcano. These flows destroyed or partially destroyed structures in their path, leading to the incineration or suffocation of the remaining population. The landscape, including the coastline, was significantly altered by the eruption. By the evening of the second day, the eruption subsided, leaving behind a haze in the atmosphere through which the weakened sun shone.

A multidisciplinary study conducted in 2010 shed light on the cause of death for the victims of the eruption. Previous beliefs held that people died from suffocation due to ash inhalation, but the study indicated that heat was the primary cause of death. The results showed that exposure to pyroclastic flows with temperatures of at least 250°C (480°F) at a distance of 10 kilometers (6 miles) from the vent was enough to cause instant death, even for those sheltered within buildings. Pompeii and its inhabitants were buried under multiple layers of tephra, reaching a depth of up to 6 meters (19.7 feet).

Pliny the Younger, who was across the Bay of Naples at Misenum, provided a first-hand account of the eruption in a letter written 25 years after the event. His uncle, Pliny the Elder, a naval commander, died while attempting to rescue stranded victims. Pliny the Younger’s account of the eruption has been highly regarded by volcanologists, and similar volcanic events have been termed “Plinian” eruptions. The exact date of the eruption has been the subject of debate, with some versions of Pliny the Younger’s letter suggesting an August event and another version indicating a date as late as 23 November. However, recent evidence, including a charcoal inscription discovered in 2018 and a collaborative study in 2022, points to a date of 24-25 October for the eruption.

Multiple lines of evidence support an October/November eruption, such as the clothing worn by the victims, which suggests heavier garments suitable for that time of year, the presence of fresh fruits and vegetables typical of October, chestnuts indicating a maturity timeframe of mid-September, sealed wine fermenting jars typical of late October, and coins with specific imperial titles that could not have been minted before the second week of September. These pieces of evidence collectively support the conclusion that the eruption occurred in late October or early November.

After the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, Pompeii was buried under layers of ash and debris. The city’s name and location were eventually forgotten, although it still appeared on maps like the Tabula Peutingeriana in the 4th century. Further eruptions in subsequent centuries, particularly in 471–473 and 512, covered the remains even more deeply. The area eventually became known as La Civita.

In 1592, architect Domenico Fontana accidentally encountered ancient walls covered with paintings and inscriptions while digging an underground aqueduct. However, he kept the discovery a secret. In 1689, Francesco Picchetti discovered a wall inscription mentioning a town councillor of Pompeii, but its significance was not fully understood until Francesco Bianchini and Giuseppe Macrini associated it with the buried city in 1693.

Herculaneum, another city affected by the eruption, was rediscovered in 1738 during the construction of a summer palace. This sparked interest in finding further remains, leading to excavations at the site of Pompeii in 1748 by Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre, a Spanish military engineer. Charles of Bourbon, the King of Naples, was particularly fascinated by the finds and supported the excavations. In 1763, an inscription was found that mentioned the “Rei Publicae Pompeianorum,” confirming the identification of the city as Pompeii.

The first scientific excavations were directed by Karl Weber in the late 18th century, followed by Francisco La Vega and later his brother, Pietro. Significant progress was made during the French occupation of Naples from 1799 to 1815 when the land was confiscated, and up to 700 workers were employed in the excavations. The excavated areas in the north and south were connected, and parts of the Via dell’Abbondanza were exposed, giving a better understanding of the size and layout of the ancient town. The excavations faced financial challenges but continued, yielding notable discoveries such as the houses of the Faun, Menander, the Tragic Poet, and the Surgeon.

Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1863 and made significant advancements. He introduced the technique of injecting plaster into the voids left by decomposed bodies to recreate the forms of the volcano’s victims. This technique, known as plaster casting, is still used today with a more durable resin. Fiorelli also implemented scientific documentation, dividing the city into nine regions and numbering the entrances of individual houses. He published excavation reports and oversaw the exposure of the entire west section of the city.

Thanks to the dedicated efforts of archaeologists and researchers over the years, Pompeii has been gradually uncovered, revealing valuable insights into ancient Roman life and preserving a remarkable snapshot of the past.

In modern times, archaeologists have continued excavations in Pompeii, although their focus has shifted towards preservation, documentation, and the study of genuine antique remains. Amedeo Maiuri conducted significant excavations in the 1920s and 1950s, uncovering older layers beneath the AD 79 levels to learn about the settlement history. However, the scientific documentation of these excavations was inadequate, and preservation efforts were haphazard, often leading to reconstructions that were difficult to distinguish from the original ruins.

Since then, large-scale excavations have not been planned, and the emphasis has been on reconstructing, documenting, and slowing the decay of the ruins. Under the “Great Pompeii Project,” efforts have been made to relieve over 2.5 km of ancient walls within the city of the danger of collapse. This involves treating the unexcavated areas behind the street fronts to improve drainage and reduce the pressure of groundwater and earth on the walls. The project has also included targeted soundings and excavations in specific areas.

Recent discoveries in Pompeii include:

1. In December 2018, the remains of harnessed horses were found in the Villa of the Mysteries.
2. The “Great Pompeii Project” has been ongoing, focusing on preserving and stabilizing the ancient walls.
3. In November 2020, the remains of two men, believed to be a wealthy man and his slave, were found in a thick layer of ash. They had likely escaped the initial eruption but were killed by a subsequent blast. Analysis of the bones suggested that the younger individual was likely a slave.
4. In December 2020, an excavated thermopolium (an ancient snack-bar) revealed brightly colored frescoes depicting food offerings, as well as terracotta pots with remnants of meals and other artifacts.
5. In January 2021, a well-preserved “large, four-wheel ceremonial chariot” was uncovered in the portico of a villa in Civita Giuliana, north of Pompeii. It is believed to be an elaborate bridal carriage called a pilentum and has been restored for display at the Baths of Diocletian.
6. In 2021, an exceptional 1st-century AD painted tomb of a freed slave named Marcus Venerius Secundio was discovered outside the Porta Sarno gate. The tomb contained mummified human remains and provided evidence of Greek cultural events in Pompeii.

These ongoing excavations and discoveries continue to enhance our understanding of Pompeii’s history and provide valuable insights into ancient Roman life.

The conservation of Pompeii has been a constant concern for archaeologists due to various forms of deterioration. The site has been exposed to natural elements, such as weathering, erosion, and light exposure, as well as water damage. Poor methods of excavation and reconstruction, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism, and theft have also contributed to the deterioration of the site. The lack of adequate weather protection for many buildings has resulted in the fading or loss of original interior decoration. Additionally, during World War II, the city suffered significant damage from bombings by Allied forces.

The conservation issues at Pompeii have raised international attention. The site was included in the World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund in 1996, 1998, and 2000, highlighting the need for restoration and interpretation plans. Funding from organizations such as American Express and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation has supported conservation efforts at Pompeii.

There have been instances of structural collapse at Pompeii, such as the collapse of the Schola Armatorum (House of the Gladiators) in 2010 due to heavy rainfall and poor drainage. Controversy arose following the collapse, with accusations of neglect.

Although funding is directed towards conservation, the expanse of Pompeii and the scale of the problems make it challenging to halt the slow decay of the materials. In 2012, a study recommended an improved strategy for interpretation and presentation of the site to enhance conservation and preservation in the short term.

In 2013, UNESCO warned that if restoration and preservation efforts did not show substantial progress within two years, Pompeii could be placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger. A five-year project called “Grande Progetto Pompei” began in 2012 with funding from the European Union. It focused on stabilizing and conserving buildings in the highest-risk areas. In 2014, UNESCO received a new management plan to integrate the property’s management, conservation, and maintenance programs.

Recent conservation efforts at Pompeii have included the recreation of domus gardens, orchards, and vineyards based on frescoes and archaeological finds, providing insights into their pre-catastrophe appearance. Several long-closed domus have also been reopened after restoration, including the House of the Ship Europa, House of the Orchard, House of the Lovers, and the newly excavated House of Leda and the Swan. These efforts aim to preserve and showcase the cultural heritage of Pompeii for future generations.

During its development under Roman rule, Pompeii experienced significant urban growth and the construction of various public and private buildings. While it was a relatively small provincial city, it displayed elements of Greek, Etruscan, and Roman architecture, making it valuable for the study of ancient Roman building methods and urban planning.

By the time of the city’s conquest by Sulla in 89 BC, the street layout was largely established, and most of the insulae (city blocks) were already built. Under Roman rule, Pompeii witnessed a period of accelerated urban development, particularly during the Augustan period starting around 30 BC.

Public buildings played an essential role in the urban fabric of Pompeii. Notable examples include the Amphitheatre, which featured a central natatorium (swimming pool) and a palaestra or gymnasium. The amphitheater is recognized as a model of sophisticated design, especially in terms of crowd control. The city also boasted two theaters, the Eumachia Building, and at least four public baths.

Various service buildings served the needs of the population, such as the Macellum (meat market), the Pistrinum (baker), thermopolia (inns or snack-bars), and cauponae (pubs or dives). The Lupanar, a building dedicated to prostitution, was also present in Pompeii. The city had an aqueduct that supplied water to public baths, street fountains, and many private residences and businesses. The well-preserved castellum aquae (water distribution center) reveals intricate details of the water distribution network.

Pompeii was a bustling city with numerous shops and workshops. There were over 30 bakeries equipped with wood-burning ovens, millstones, and sales counters. Thermopolia, nearly 100 in number, served hot food and drinks to the inhabitants. These establishments, such as the thermopolium of Vetutius Placidus and the thermopolium of Asellina, provided spaces for customers to eat their meals. Wool processing was also well developed, with various workshops for spinning, dyeing, washing, and processing raw wool. The Building of Eumachia, dedicated to the wool market, housed statues, had a colonnade, and featured a jar for collecting urine used as a detergent. The fullonica of Stephanus was a workshop converted from a house for fabric processing and featured large tanks for washing and drying clothes. Additionally, there was a garum workshop that produced a sauce made from fermented fish entrails.

Overall, Pompeii’s development as a Roman city showcased its architectural and urban planning achievements, providing valuable insights into the daily life and infrastructure of an ancient Roman community.

Here are some additional buildings in Pompeii:

Public Buildings:

• Amphitheatre of Pompeii
• Eumachia Building
• Macellum of Pompeii
• Suburban Baths
• Stabian Baths
• Temple of Apollo
• Temple of Isis
• Temple of Jupiter
• Theatre Area of Pompeii

Town Houses:

• House of the Centenary
• House of the Faun
• House of Julia Felix
• House of the Greek Epigrams
• House of Loreius Tiburtinus
• House of Menander
• House of the Prince of Naples
• House of Sallust
• House of the Silver Wedding
• House of the Small Fountain
• House of the Surgeon
• House of the Tragic Poet
• House of the Vettii

Exterior Villas:

• Villa of Diomedes
• Villa of the Mysteries

Other:

• The Garden of the Fugitives
• Lupanar

Please note that this is not an exhaustive list, and Pompeii has many more buildings and structures of archaeological and historical significance.

The discovery of erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum has posed a dilemma for archaeologists due to the cultural clash between ancient Roman and Counter-Reformation European attitudes towards sexuality. As a result, some of the erotic artworks found in the excavations were hidden away again. For example, a wall fresco depicting Priapus, the ancient god of sex and fertility, was covered with plaster. An older reproduction was locked away and only opened upon request, but it was not rediscovered until 1998 after rainfall revealed it.

One notable discovery in 2018 was an ancient fresco depicting an erotic scene of “Leda and the Swan” in Pompeii. These erotic artworks and artifacts are preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. However, in 1819, King Francis was reportedly so embarrassed by the erotic artwork during his visit to the Pompeii exhibition that he had it locked away in a “secret cabinet” called the “gabinetto segreto.” This cabinet was accessible only to people of “mature age and respected morals.” The Naples “Secret Museum” has undergone periods of being opened, closed, and reopened throughout history. It was briefly accessible in the late 1960s during the sexual revolution and was officially reopened for public viewing in 2000. Minors are still allowed entry only in the presence of a guardian or with written permission.

The presence of erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum offers insights into ancient Roman attitudes towards sexuality and provides a glimpse into the daily life and cultural practices of the time. These artworks serve as a testament to the diversity of human expression and the ways in which sexuality has been portrayed and perceived throughout history.

Pompeii has been a popular tourist destination for over 250 years and continues to attract a large number of visitors each year. In 2008, it was one of Italy’s most visited tourist sites, with nearly 2.6 million visitors annually. It is part of the Vesuvius National Park and was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. To manage the tourism impact and alleviate pressure on Pompeii, the governing body for the site, the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei, has introduced new tickets that allow visitors to explore other nearby cities such as Herculaneum and Stabiae, as well as the Villa Poppaea.

The tourism industry driven by Pompeii has a significant impact on the economy of the nearby town of Pompei. Many local residents are employed in various tourism and hospitality-related roles, including taxi or bus drivers, waiters, and hotel staff.

Access to the archaeological site has become more restricted in recent years. Excavations at the site have largely ceased due to a moratorium imposed by Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo, the superintendent of the site. Today, less than a third of all buildings that were open to the public in the 1960s are available for viewing.

The Antiquarium of Pompeii, originally constructed by Giuseppe Fiorelli in the 19th century, serves as an exhibition venue showcasing archaeological finds that depict daily life in ancient Pompeii. The museum suffered damage during World War II and an earthquake in 1980 but reopened in 2016 for temporary exhibitions. It was officially reopened as a permanent exhibition venue in 2021, offering visitors the opportunity to see archaeological discoveries from the excavations, casts of the volcano’s victims, and displays documenting Pompeii’s settlement history.

Pompeii has also made appearances in popular culture. It has been featured in films like “Journey to Italy” (1954), the British comedy series “Up Pompeii!”, and the revived BBC series “Doctor Who.” The rock band Pink Floyd filmed a live concert in the ancient Roman amphitheater in 1971, and Siouxsie and the Banshees referenced Pompeii in their song “Cities in Dust.” The city has also inspired literature, including Robert Harris’ novel “Pompeii” and the song “Pompeii” by the band Bastille. In 2014, a disaster film titled “Pompeii” was released, directed by Paul W. S. Anderson. In 2016, David Gilmour of Pink Floyd returned to the Pompeii amphitheater to perform a live concert, marking the first event with an audience since the eruption in AD 79.

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